How sleep deprivation affects your productivity

How lack of sleep influences your profitability Did you realize resting can help your forces of efficiency alongside invigorating your cerebrum? Yes, a decent night’s rest can have a tremendous effect in your capacity to be gainful grinding away. From producing new plans to considering clever answers for issues, resting soundly can carry colossal changes to your life. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine accentuates the significance of seven to eight hours of rest for a normal grown-up for ideal use of their psychological capacities and generally speaking execution. A portion of the serious issues that develop out of lack of sleep are a decrease in psychological execution, impeded memory, absence of spatial mindfulness, poor dynamic and eased back response time. These are a portion of the momentary issues that develop out of lack of sleep. Nonetheless, contemplates show that delayed lack of sleep can have unfavorable long haul impacts like decrease in insusceptibility and life expectancy, negative effect on learning and m emory and manifestations of ADHD.Here’s how an absence of rest can influence your presentation at work†¦Impaired choice makingWhen you need rest, you are denied of a sound brain which energizes the capacities to assess situations and condemn dependent on those appraisals. These capacities are essential to the execution of any errand that requires sensible thinking from complex comprehension. Without a satisfactory handle of a sound psyche, you might be increasingly inclined to committing errors at work because of an expanded inclination to settle on rash and half-baked choices or simply hindering work progress in the more troublesome endeavor to forestall the former.Limited learning and memory capacitiesThe procedure of getting the hang of, holding and improving aptitudes and capacities vigorously depend on your working memory limit, one which decides the presentation of your intellectual on the web (continuous) preparing. Exploration proposes that while you are snoozing , your memory frameworks are as yet dynamic and resting altogether reinforces existing memories.â During Rapid Eye Movement (REM) rest, your cerebrum likewise cuts off superfluous neuron associations while looking after others; which means rest improves your memory by specifically both fortifying and wiping out shaped neural associations. In a condition of lack of sleep, your ability for effective memory maintenance is considerably disturbed, ruining profitable growth.Toxicity towards physical and passionate healthHealth ramifications of a sleeping disorder, while never generally the need, ought to never be trivialized. Rest assumes a basic job in your physical wellbeing by both fortifying your insusceptible framework against contaminations by means of boosting defensive cytokine creation and bringing down your danger of diabetes, corpulence, and cardiovascular maladies. Inadequate rest will emphatically add to a decrease in your physiological state, contrarily affecting your work execution. It has been discovered that lack of sleep can bargain your psychological handling and intensify the littlest measure of enthusiastic unrest, making you progressively bad tempered and unpredictable. This blocks your official capacities, rendering you less productive.Not getting enough rest or low quality of rest influences your capacity to convey in practically all features of life. Be it work or home, a sleeping disorder or not resting soundly can make things extremely hard for you. In any case, getting a legitimate rest can without a doubt understand every one of your issues and can improve your capacity to be profitable. A strange rest cycle is related with gentle gloom and nervousness issue, particularly in individuals who are confronting enthusiastic fights. Wheezing can likewise be an explanation behind anomalous rest, distinctive wheezing arrangements can at last spare you from this genuine disorder.We’ve secured what can occur with a poor night’s res t, yet these capacities can improve with a strong 7-8 hours. Here’s how a decent night’s rest can assist you with turning out to be more productive†¦It makes you energeticThis appears glaringly evident yet it’s a well established actuality that getting a decent night’s rest can give you heaps of vitality and a temperament support. It loosens up your body and mind and sets you up for the following day. From improving your activity execution to helping you remain beneficial at home, resting soundly can likewise streamline your health.Boosts memoryRemember when we discussed what occurs during REM rest? The mind expels superfluous neural associations and fortifies the intellectual bonds assembling your recollections while you nap. Go such a large number of evenings without REM rest and your recollections become murky. With a steady night’s rest, you really get an opportunity of recollecting that report you’re expected to submit at 9 AM.It m akes you a quicker learnerLearning new things falls into place without any issues for a new psyche. Your mind gets more grounded and works quicker. So whether you’re at work or in class, never bargain your nature of rest. With a solid body and sound brain, you’ll open the entryways of opportunity.While we continually center around how we can increase our outstanding burden to siphon up creation, we regularly risk our wellbeing to complete everything. Recollect that adequate rest is vital to a fruitful life.Sleep tight, everyone!About the Author: Katherine Dilworth is a spouse, mother, and blogger on caseydilworth.com,â a blog that centers around giving wheezing answers for everybody.

Marine Resources Assignment

1) Five focuses from the official rundown that isn't talked about in the video. The expanse of America benefits its kin and the individuals who depends on it. Issues in regards to the correct support and how to take great consideration of the sea and the animals living in it have emerged because of certain conditions. Individuals have done a great deal of things that hurts the sea. From the outset, these individuals didn't perceive the negat6ive impact of their exercises against them, however since the issue has developed they dread that some time or another they won't advantage from the sea any longer. As to circumstance, individuals concerned have examined the reason for the issue and how it influences them. Also, from they data they have assembled from inspecting the reason for the issue, they think of the potential arrangements against the issue in regards to the sea and now they are attempting to actualize it with the point of sparing the sea from conceivable devastation brought about by their own exercises. A portion of the issues have just made harm the sea and impacts of it have additionally influenced the individuals living inside the said zone. These issues have caused a great deal of harm yet from these harms individuals have understood their slip-ups and are currently attempting to think of it by doing their obligations well. From the correct activities done by the individuals who are worried in sparing the sea from conceivable calamity, the sea is presently recuperating from the past harms it have endured and still keeps on recapturing what it might have lost from the previous years. 2) Five focuses that are examined I the video and are extended in the rundown. America depends on the sea for a great deal of considerable and indispensable things they need. Openings for work for many individuals living in the seaside zone rely upon the sea to keep up their activity for their families. The travel industry additionally relies upon the sea in light of the fact that the shore of the sea has been a recreational region for as long as years. Be that as it may, presently, the sea faces serious issue. The sea is currently being demolished by the individuals because of their inappropriate exercises which cause negative impacts to the sea. A ton of issues in regards to the sea happen. Some are a lot of influencing the sea. A portion of these issues exist normally yet a ton of these issues are brought about by human wildness. As we probably am aware our part, we ought to be skilled and dependable of doing it well so as to maintain our seas in control. Then again, being careless and unreliable with respect to our obligations to secure the sea makes obliteration the sea where we got a ton of advantages. The improvements of the seaside region are likewise influencing the sea. These beach front advancements tend to crush the asylum of a ton of marine animals in this manner influencing the biological equalization of the ocean’s environment. Another issue is the wild progression of oil to the ocean’s surface that jeopardizes the lives of marine animals. Likewise the populace development of the business angles that lives in the sea causes another issue since they will in general be a contender for other marine animals. However on the more brilliant side of the circumstance, light of expectation exists as we see the improvement of the sea and the endurance of the animals living in it. These are brought about by the exercises which are led to resuscitate and remember the previous solid sea we once have. From these lights of expectation begins to do our part to determine the issue and still expectations that fromâ this we will currently have the option to deal with seas well.

Fetzima Uses, Side Effects, Dosages, Precautions

Fetzima Uses, Side Effects, Dosages, Precautions Depression Treatment Print What to Know About Fetzima (Levomilnacipran) An Antidepressant Used to Treat Major Depressive Disorder By Nancy Schimelpfening Nancy Schimelpfening, MS is the administrator for the non-profit depression support group Depression Sanctuary. Nancy has a lifetime of experience with depression, experiencing firsthand how devastating this illness can be. Learn about our editorial policy Nancy Schimelpfening Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on March 03, 2015 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 04, 2020 Depression Overview Types Symptoms Causes & Risk Factors Diagnosis Treatment Coping ADA & Your Rights Depression in Kids Image Source / Getty Images Fetzima (levomilnacipran) is an antidepressant drug used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD) in adults. It comes in capsule form (extended-release) and contains the active ingredient levomilnacipran, which is a type of selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). SNRIs work by blocking the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine that play a vital role in mood. Uses Fetzima has been FDA-approved for the treatment of MDD in adults. It is not approved for use in children. Fetzima is a new version of Savella (milnacipran), a drug used to treat the symptoms of fibromyalgia. However, Fetzima should never be used for fibromyalgia. Before Taking Prior to prescribing Fetzima, your doctor will likely take into consideration the following factors: The symptoms of MDD that you struggle with mostIf you have thoughts of suicide or self-harmWhats worked for you in the past (unless this is your first major depressive episode)Whats worked for other family members with MDD (genetics can play a role in how you respond to an antidepressant)Other medications you are currently takingOther types of non-medical treatment youre receiving, such as talk therapyOther medical problems or co-occurring psychiatric conditions, including a history of bipolar disorderIf you are pregnant or breastfeeding or planning to become pregnantCurrent drug or alcohol use How Doctors Choose the Best Antidepressant for You Talk to your healthcare provider or pharmacist to see if there is any difference in choosing the brand-name drug over the generic version, especially if your insurance covers one over the other. The FDA requires generic drugs to use the same active ingredients as their brand-name counterparts and, therefore, the risks and benefits should be the same. Precautions and Contraindications If you are allergic to levomilnacipran or milnacipran, you should not use Fetzima. It is also not advisable if you have narrow-angle glaucoma. Its important to tell your doctor about all the medication you are taking, including prescription medication, over-the-counter drugs, vitamins, and supplements before taking Fetzima. If Fetzima is mixed with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), it can cause a potentially life-threatening reaction. Do not take Fetzima within seven days before or 14 days after you have taken an MAOI, including the antibiotic linezolid or intravenous methylene blue. Levomilnacipran has also been found to enhance the effects of medication known to increase bleeding (such as ibuprofen, warfarin, and aspirin) and to increase the levels and effects of the following drugs: Antibiotics including Biaxin (clarithromycin) and Zithromax (azithromycin)Antifungals such as Diflucan (fluconazole), Nizoral (ketoconazole), Sporanox (itraconazole)HIV medications including Norvir (ritonavir) and Crixivan (indinavir)Medication for mood, anxiety, psychotic or thought disorders, including tricyclic antidepressants, lithium, fentanyl, tryptophan, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), other serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), buspirone, amphetamines, or antipsychoticsTriptans used to treat migraine headachesTramadol for moderate to severe painDiuretics (water pills)Over-the-counter supplements such as tryptophan or St. Johns Wort According to the manufacturer, you should also talk to your doctor if you are pregnant, nursing, or planning to become pregnant or to breastfeed, or have any of the following health conditions: High blood pressureHeart problemsKidney problems (Fetzima can cause renal impairment in relatively low doses)Bleeding problems (the drug can increase your risk of bleeding and bruising)Trouble urinatingAlcohol use disorderLow sodium levels in your bloodMania or bipolar disorderSeizures or convulsions If Fetzima doesnt work with your health history and current medications, consider asking your doctor whether a different SNRI or another type of reuptake inhibitor would work for you. Some possible options may include: Other SNRIs such as Focalin (dexmethylphenidate), Cymbalta  (duloxetine), or Pristiq  (desvenlafaxine)Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (NRIs) such as Ludiomil (maprotiline)Norepinephrine-Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors (NDRIs) such as Focalin (dexmethylphenidate)Serotonin-Norepinephrine-Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNDRIs) like Effexor (venlafaxine) Dosage Fetzima is often prescribed at a low dose (20 milligrams), which is gradually increased over two days to 40mg per day. According to the manufacturer, the recommended dose ranges from 40mg to 120mg, however it’s up to your doctor to determine the right dose for you.   Always check your prescription and ask your doctor or pharmacist if you have any questions regarding dosage. How to Take and Store Take your prescription on the schedule and follow the exact dosage your doctor prescribed. The manufacturer recommends taking Fetzima daily, at the same time each day, with or without food. Swallow the capsule whole; dont open and sprinkle in food, crush, or chew. Its best to store Fetzima at room temperature (77 °F) and to keep out of the reach of children. If you miss a dose, take the missed dose as soon as you remember. If its almost time for the next dose, skip the missed dose and take your next dose at the regular time. Dont take two doses of Fetzima at the same time.   If you take too much (more than 120mg) or suspect an overdose, call 911 or the Poison Control Center at 1-800-222-1222. Side Effects As with any prescription medication, there are certain side effects that you may experience while using Fetzima. Common The most common adverse side effects reported by people taking Fetzima include: NauseaVomitingConstipationExcessive sweating (hyperhidrosis)Increased or irregular heart rate (tachycardia)Erectile dysfunctionHeart palpitations This is only a partial list of possible side effects for this medication. You should ask your doctor or pharmacist if you require additional information. Negative Effects of Antidepressants Severe Certain side effects, although they are quite rare, do require more serious consideration if they occur. You should seek out prompt medical assistance if you experience any of the following: High blood pressure (hypertension)Increased heart rateAbnormal bleeding or bruisingVisual problemsDifficulty with urinationMania or hypomania: Symptoms include increased energy, sleep problems, racing thoughts, impulsive behavior, grandiose thoughts, elevated mood, irritability and rapid, excessive talking.Seizures or convulsionsLow sodium in the blood: Symptoms include headache, weakness, confusion, and problems with thinking, concentration, or memory.Suicidal thoughts or actions or worsening depressionSerotonin syndrome: Symptoms include agitation, hallucinations, changes in consciousness, coordination problems, twitching muscles, rapid heartbeat, high or low blood pressure, sweating or fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or muscle rigidity.Severe allergic reaction: Symptoms include breathing difficulty, facial swelling, rash, hives, or blisters. If you experience any of the more severe side effects listed above, seek out medical assistance immediately to avoid damage to your health or possibly fatal outcomes. Warnings and Interactions Fetzima is not recommended if you are pregnant or breastfeeding (its unknown if the drug passes through breastmilk), so you should contact your doctor immediately if you become pregnant while taking the drug. Fetzima can cause sleepiness or impact your ability to make decisions, think clearly, or react quickly. Do not drive or operate heavy machinery until you know how the drug affects you. Like all antidepressants, Fetzima has a black box warning of an increased risk of suicidal thoughts or actions in  some children, teenagers, or young adults within the first few months of treatment. Pay close attention to any sudden changes in mood, behavior, thoughts, or feelings, especially when first starting the medication. If you do experience these sudden changes, report them to your doctor immediately. Its also important to keep schedule visits with your healthcare provider to discuss any ongoing symptoms or side effects. Dont try and stop the medication on your own. Although your first impulse when you experience intolerable side effects may be to stop taking your medication, its never a good idea to discontinue your antidepressant without first consulting with your doctor. Your depression may return or even become worse if you suddenly stop taking your antidepressant.  In addition, you run the risk of experiencing what is known as discontinuation syndrome, which includes a set of unpleasant symptoms such as nausea, fatigue, headaches, strange neurological sensations, and muscle aches. Your doctor will be able to best advise you about methods to better cope with or eliminate side effects and whether its a good idea to switch to a different antidepressant that will present fewer problems for you.

The Attachment Styles And Relationship - 805 Words

After taking the Attachment Styles and Relationship, the result shows that I am in the secure adult quadrant. I am strongly agree with the result since I was really honest when I was answering the questions. On the scale ranging from one to seven on anxiety, my score was one point eighty-three, and on the scale ranging from one to seven on avoidance, my score was two point twenty-two, which is pretty low. I think the attachment that I have today is linked to the way how I was raise, and whose I grew up with. Back in Vietnam when I was a kid, I have been told that my mom love me a lot, she always bring me with her whenever she goes, and wherever she goes. After my mom died when I was ten years old because of cancer, I started to hang out with people around my neighborhood, all of them are at least five years older than me, and they treated me like a little brother. They were always protect me from others, taking care of me, buy me food, teach me about life, and showed me the real worl d. I hung out of them for about six years, and than I went to America. The most import things that I learned from them is respect, love, and be open to people. I think the attachment that I got today, secure adult attachment, is stable since when I was a kid because the place where I grew up was full of love, happy, everything is about respect, and open up to others. I born in the place where was full of struggles, gang, bad people, but luckily I was raised by loving people, happy, positive, andShow MoreRelatedAttachment Styles and Relationships1171 Words   |  5 PagesAttachment Styles and Relationships Jennifer Oliver PSY/220 Adam Miller Part One When you have two individuals and they share an emotional attachment, we call this an attachment style. According to Bolt (2004), there are three main elements. Care, commitment and closeness. I like to remember them easily by calling them the 3 C’s. Attachment styles start at birth. It is important to realize that although nature and nurture are both important elements that help develop our attachmentRead MoreAttachment Style As A Predictor For Romantic Adult Relationships Or Attachment Styles1297 Words   |  6 Pagesthe life span, attachment style is consistent; the theory of attachment, created by John Bowlby, describes attachment as â€Å"the lasting psychological connectedness between human beings† (McLeod). Attachment style forms during childhood through early school years and accommodates for experience and the environment we immerse in (Feeney Noller, 281). Through careful study, the three different attachment styles serve as a predictor for romantic adult relationships or attachment styles. The three differentRead MoreThe Influence of Parenting Styles and Attachment Styles on Relationship Designs986 Words   |  4 Pagesdevelopmental psychologists will agree that the attachment styles and parenting styles a child receives is the design for the rest of their relationships. The relationship an infant or child has with the primary caregiver is the most important because their adult behaviors are directly influenced from these experiences. This is the basic theory of attachment styles that states that the earliest bonds a child forms correlates to the kinds of relationships people form as adults. Families are the firstRead MoreAttachment Styles And Their Influence On Adult Relationships1860 Words   |  8 Pagesand developed a four-part attachment style for adults. These styles are related to how individuals see themselves, how they see others, and how they relate to the people who are special to them. The attachment styles are secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant. Bowlby, an early psychologist studying attachment styles theorized that the attachment relationship that a child has with his/her primary caregiver will determine the attachment style the child develops (BowlbyRead MoreAttachment Styles And Its Effect On Adult Romantic Relationships1739 Words   |  7 PagesAttachment Styles and its Effect on Adult Romantic Relationships Attachment is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects a caregiver to their child. The relationship between the caregiver and the child plays a vital role in the child’s behavior, mind, and emotions at any time in their life, from child to adulthood. A child’s attachment style is developed through childhood experiences. Depending on the style of attachment influences how a person reacts to their needs and how they go aboutRead More2. Assignment: Attachment Style and Relationships Essay1364 Words   |  6 Pages2. Assignment: Attachment Style and Relationships Robert Sternberg created his triangular theory of love based on three dimensions: passion, intimacy, and commitment. The degree to which a relationship demonstrates these three dimensions determines the type of love relationship. People begin love relationships with those who care for them as children. These early relationships can have a great effect on their adult relationships. †¢ Write a 350- to 700-word response summarizing the three dimensionsRead MoreAttachment Styles And Their Influence On Our Future Relationships824 Words   |  4 Pagesappearing in a relationship, individuals tend to notice the innate habits, thoughts, and behaviors of their partners on a more intimate level. These innate patterns depict the individual’s attachment styles, or the â€Å"global orientations toward relationships† (14). These attachment styles – secure, preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing – surface during childhood, and preserve the propensity to affect our future relationships in society. According to the online quiz, I sustain a secure attachment style, meaningRead MoreAttachment Style: How It Affects Love Relationships1255 Words   |  6 PagesIndividual attachments styles can affect the type of love relationships later on in life because one learns behavioral traits as a young child. Robert Sternberg introduced us to his Love Tria ngle theory in 1988. He explained that the way a person was brought up as a child can affect the way they express themselves as adults. The question remains as to why does this affect one as an adult. If one is taught from right and wrong then why does one express themselves negatively towards others? AccordingRead MoreThe Effects of Attachment Style on Adult Romantic Relationships4807 Words   |  20 PagesThe Effects of Attachment Style on Adult Romantic Relationships â€Æ' Abstract Individual attachment style and its effects on adult romantic relationships were examined. The hypothesis of this literature review was that insecure attachment style would negatively affect the overall dynamic of adult romantic relationships while secure attachment would promote positive and healthy romantic relationships. Empirical studies looking at attachment style and relationship issues such as one’s views of selfRead MoreThe Effects Of Personal Attachment Style On Romantic Relationship Satisfaction1718 Words   |  7 PagesThe Effects of Personal Attachment Style on Romantic Relationship Satisfaction Our earliest relationships in life can be deeply formative in shaping our development. Created by John Bowlby, attachment theory relates the importance of attachment in regards to personal development. According to Bowlby, attachment is the leading factor in our ability to form and maintain relationships as adults (Levy 2012, pg. 157). As human beings, we need to feel as if we belong (Cherry, 2016). We find this belongingness

4 Important Qualities of Women Leaders

When it comes to leadership, does gender matter? Is there a difference between women leaders and men who lead? If so, what are the unique qualities of female leadership that the most effective women leaders possess, and are they unique to women? Caliper Study In 2005, a year-long study conducted by Caliper, a Princeton, New Jersey-based management consulting firm, and Aurora, a London-based organization that advances women, identified a number of characteristics that distinguish women leaders from men when it comes to qualities of leadership: Women leaders are more assertive and persuasive, have a stronger need to get things done and are more willing to take risks than male leaders... Women leaders were also found to be more empathetic and flexible, as well as stronger in interpersonal skills than their male counterparts... enabl[ing] them to read situations accurately and take information in from all sides... These women leaders are able to bring others around to their point of view... because they genuinely understand and care about where others are coming from... so that the people they are leading feel more understood, supported and valued. Four Qualities of Women Leaders The Caliper study findings are summarized into four specific statements about womens leadership qualities: Women leaders are more persuasive than their male counterparts.When feeling the sting of rejection, women leaders learn from adversity and carry on with an Ill show you attitude.Women leaders demonstrate an inclusive, team-building leadership style of problem-solving and decision making.Women leaders are more likely to ignore rules and take risks. In her book Why the Best Man for the Job is a Woman: The Unique Female Qualities of Leadership, author Esther Wachs Book examined the careers of fourteen top female executives—among them Meg Whitman, President, and CEO of eBay—to learn what makes them so successful. What she discovered echoes the Caliper study, including a willingness to reinvent the rules; an ability to sell their visions; the determination to turn challenges into opportunities; and a focus on high touch in a high-tech business world. Conclusions This evidence that the leadership style of women in power is not simply unique, but possibly at odds with what men practice, begs the question: Do these qualities have value in the marketplace? Is this type of leadership welcomed by society and by the public and private sector? Dr. Musimbi Kanyoro, the World YWCA Secretary-General, says attitudes toward leadership are changing, and what women offer is essential: Domination as a leadership style is becoming less and less popular. There is a new growing appreciation of...those traits that women use to keep families together and to organize volunteers to unite and make change in the shared life of communities. These newly admired leadership qualities of shared leadership; nurturance and doing good for others are today not only sought after but also indeed needed to make a difference in the world....A feminine way of leading includes helping the world to understand and be principled about values that really matter. Sources:   Women Leaders Study: The Qualities That Distinguish Women Leaders.  Caliperonline.com.Kanyoro, Musimbi. Challenges to Womens Leadership. Speech in honor of YWCA of Salt Lake centennial celebration. 13 July 2006.Are Women Natural Leaders, and Men†¦the Opposite? KnowledgeWharton, University of Pennsylvania 8 November 2000.

The Rise of Punk in 70’s Britain. Free Essays

string(88) " to appear on Britain’s streets in attire which shocked the everyday British citizen\." hDuring 1970s Britain, life was a picture of austerity and hardship for many members of the public. The country was facing the worst economic recession since the Great Depression of the 1930s and large numbers of the electorate were quickly beginning to grow tired of the failing policies being touted by both Labour and Conservative minority governments. The experience of Britain for many in the 1970s was one of drawn out decline and decay, the consensus politics of the 1960’s was falling apart and Harold Macmillan’s notion of ‘You’ve never had it so good’ couldn’t have been further from the truth. We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise of Punk in 70’s Britain. or any similar topic only for you Order Now It could be argued that the aforementioned factors played a role of importance when assessing the largely spontaneous emergence of the punk movement into British society. Economic recession, not only in Britain but in other major world nations, was ever increasing, mainly due to the 1973 oil crisis which eventually cost Heath his post as prime minister and paved the way towards ‘The Rise of Thatcherism’.The crisis was due to the Arab members of the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), announcing, as a result of the ongoing Yom Kippur War, that they would no longer ship oil to nations that had supported Israel in its conflict with Syria and Egypt. These nations included the United States of America and their allies in the shape of Britain and Japan.British industry suffered a great deal due to the lack of oil being imported into the country, Britain began to face major competition from other major economies, such as Japan and the USA, in certain secto rs such as manufacturing, which had previously been a large and consistent area of income. With the flight of capital in the face of increasing working class militancy, it soon became clear that Governments in the industrialised economies could no longer sustain a commitment to full employment.As factories within these newly competitive industries were forced to close due to falling sales, it consequently had the effect of rising unemployment. By the mid 1970s unemployment had reached well over a million people and did not show signs of ceasing at any point soon after. The electorate began to resent the emergence of mass unemployment as it had not played any real part within British politics since the years shortly following the end of World War I, a period of British history which the British public would not look back on with any great affection and certainly would not want to revisit.Considerable amounts of workers who had been recently made redundant began supporting trade unions on a more regular and meaningful basis. The unemployed became aggrieved with the failing British economy and felt adamant that they deserved better support and welfare than they were currently receiving due to the government’s current inadequacies. Now that the trade unions had a much greater support, albeit in unfortunate circumstances, they began to put increasing pressure on Heath’s conservative government to pass legislative measures to aid the unemployed in their hour of need. Workers from almost all of the countries key industries such as mining, ship building and car manufacture went on strike to demonstrate their frustrations and vent their anger towards the incompetence of the Tory’ administration. The refusal by either party to make compromises on their respective arguments only furthered the problems and deepened the mire which Britain was steadily descending into.Due to the prolonged strikes by the mining community which started on the 10th February 1974 and lasted until 7th March of the same year, Britain found herself being exceedingly stretched to the point of what resources they had left circa the aforesaid strike action. Electrical power was deemed to be being consumed at too much of a prompt pace and under the rule of Edward Heath, the Conservatives decided on the introduction of the ‘Three Day Week’. The Three Day Week was a policy in which commercial users of electricity would be limited to a quota of three specified cons ecutive days use in a week long period.General members of the public also had to deal with the consequences of the striking populations’ actions. Ministers solemnly urged the populace to share baths and brush their teeth in the dark. Television, which by now was one of the nation’s favourite pastimes, was brought to an untimely end at 10. 30pm each evening. Heath had promised â€Å"tomorrow would be better than today†, but he couldn’t even keep the lights on. An image synonymous with the mid to late 1970s was that of piles of rotting rubbish collecting on pavements throughout the country.Waste centres were closed and emergency refuse sites were opened in town streets after binmen joined in months of strikes. This only became a further irritant to the British electorate who were becoming increasingly restless waiting for the government to develop new strategies in order to tackle the ongoing disrepute between themselves and Britain’s workforce. The social and economic problems of Britain, however, could not be solved simply by government legislation. Unrest was caused by much more than Heath’s perceived shortcomings as a Prime Minister. The problems of society ran far deeper than that.A process of fallout from the 1960’s had occurred; a sizeable part of the generation born at the end of the late 50’s and early 60’s were coming into maturity and most were without the guarantee of a job, economic stability and a sense of community. The younger generations within Britain began to feel alienated from their peers and it could also be argued that some may have wished alienation upon themselves to escape from what was fast becoming a dire excuse for a society. The youth of the time were on the lookout for an escape from their lives of conservatism, conformity and control.This accumulated feeling of resentment towards the authoritarian government manifested itself in the form of the Punk movement. From late 1976, kids started to appear on Britain’s streets in attire which shocked the everyday British c itizen. You read "The Rise of Punk in 70’s Britain." in category "Papers" Ripped t-shirts with hastily drawn band logos, safety pins, bin liners and spiked hair defined a new image. Since the 1960s any diversity became a wagon to jump on; any music, fashion or ideologies that were incorporated within the ‘free love’ scene were no longer something that the uninspired youth of the ‘70s aspired to be part of.Mods, Rockers and Hippies were all fast becoming sub-cultures that were deemed to be cliched by the nation’s youth. The ‘60s scene had been entirely commercialised by the establishment and had been turned into areas of profit by large record companies. These record labels however also were not putting any interest or faith into anything new in the music industry, they wanted to stick with what had brought them so much profit and it seemed nothing would be able to shift their ‘if its not broken, don’t fix it’ mentality.The establishment of the 1960’s-70’s did not want their youth creating c ounter-cultures, thus the average youth felt the need to rebel and so the DIY culture exploded. Although punk never reached the forefront in the 60’s, the rebellious ethos of the movement was beginning to show, mainly in American acts and specifically within the New York rock scene. Teenagers influenced by the R;B styled groups of the decades earlier years began to form their own garage bands across the United States. Various trends and events would occur at the inception of the 1970’s that would be helpful in advancing the music ndustry and working towards the growth of punk rock, namely the deaths of Jimi Hendrix and Jim Morrison which seemed to have brought the popular music lovers into a state of uncertainty and would now mean music journalists would have to find new acts to write about. In Great Britain, bands and artists such as David Bowie had started to refine their sounds in hope of reviving their careers. The result of this was the so called ‘glam’ movement, which saw artists like T-Rex and Roxy Music beginning to blend pop song structures with harder edged guitar based material.Back in the New York Scene, a trashy streetwise orientated version of glam was starting to surface. A band eager to take to the throne of this was the New York Dolls. The Dolls, and later, The Ramones would serve as somewhat of a prototype, from which later came the Sex Pistols and many other of London’s punk bands such as The Clash, The Jam and Siouxsie and The Banshees. By the mid ‘70s many music lovers had become tiresome towards the industry’s ‘run of the mill’ rock that the public were being force-fed. Members of the public began to see rock and roll acts as nothing more than that acts – artificial, manufactured and uninspiring.The world of rock had become a tightly controlled, moneymaking machine in which record sales and success held precedence over any passion or true emotion. Essentially people yearned for a rock and roll that was innovative and fun again. On December 1st 1976 an infamous event occurred that made sure that anyone who was not aware of the emergence of punk was now fully conscious of its presence. The Sex Pistols appeared on the ‘Today’ show as a last minute replacement. The band was interviewed by Bill Grundy who naively on his part, proceeded to provoke the band to â€Å"say something outrageous†. For Mick Jones in particular, he took this as an open invitation and obliged with a barrage of expletives, which not surprisingly, shocked the early evening audience. The following day the front page of various national newspapers contained pictures of the band on the show and a summary of their antics. The older generation of Britain, needless to say, were in outrage. This however was exactly the kind of reaction the band had dreamed of. It gained them column inches and further made the public aware of their existence. Whilst in the public spotlight the band released arguably their most famous single, ‘God Save The Queen.The song came at a time when opposition to royalty was still seen as treasonous and frowned upon by the majority of British people. The record was quickly refused airtime by the BBC whose station, Radio 1, dominated the broadcasting of music at the time. Only DJs such as John Peel dared to play punk in succession to other popular music hits of the era. Nevertheless, during the week of Queen Elizabeth II’s silver jubilee, the single ‘officially’ reached number two in the UK charts although many large record stores knew that ‘God Save The Queen’ was outselling Rod Stewart’s â€Å"I Don’t Want To Talk About It† by four to one.Unbelievably, the charts had been rigged so the music industry would not be red-faced by such a spectacle. However this did not deter the band from putting out further material. ‘Pretty Vacant’ and ‘Holidays In The Sun’ were released to promote the Sex Pistols’ first and only full length album, ‘Never Mind The Bollocks – Here’s The Sex Pistols’, which was released in November and s ubsequently went straight to the top of the album charts despite many stores refusing to stock it.After another tour, this time held in secret to avoid bans, The Pistols’ final gig took place at Ivanhoe’s in Huddersfield on Christmas Day 1977 before they took off for the ill-fated U. S. tour in January 1978. They had originally been scheduled to start the tour in December 1977, beginning with a performance on Saturday Night Live, but due to the bands run-ins with the law, were unable to get their passports in time, so Stiff Records’ band, Elvis Costello and the Attractions, went on in their place. The eight show tour of the U. S. was a badly planned and dispiriting experience for all concerned.Sid Vicious, the band’s bassist, was beaten by the bodyguards who were hired to protect him, Johnny Rotten was ill and the bands’ performances were destroyed by awful sound and hostile audiences. On the final date of January 14th at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, Rotten quit, famously asking â€Å"Ever get the feeling you’ve been cheated? † before walking off. Punk bands continued to play the usual haunts around London, but never again did anyone come close to causing the outrage or having the success which the Sex Pistols had experienced.I went about organising a question and answer session with my father Martin, who was in his teens during the emergence of punk and also followed the movement with great interest. Through summarising the feedback I gained from the aforementioned interview I was given a great personal viewpoint on the society of the mid 1970s as well as his own personal experiences of the same period. ‘Through the 1970s the news was all about strikes, economic downturns and lost opportunities.As a teenager I can recall the 3 day week when places of work closed to save energy, my dad would be at home on reduced pay (he worked for the GPO – now BT) and the newspapers would print schedules showing when your area would have power cuts, which were a regular part of life. I remember my dad taking my sister and me for a drive in the car to Falkirk to get out of the house and keep warm rather than sit in the house with no power. TV stations shut down after the news at 10. 30 in the hope that people would just go to bed and save electricity.A mate of mine bought packets of candles from the market in Glasgow and made a decent addition to his pocket money by selling them round the neighbourhood where he lived. Also the entitlement to dole money for school leavers had been stopped which meant that you couldn’t sign on and get money straight away, you had to wait for a number of weeks before you’d get a â€Å"Giro†. Unemployment was making the headlines in the papers and for the first time in years people were leaving school believing that they wouldn’t get a job, or at least wouldn’t get one that was worth having as the factories and shipyards which traditionally paid well were closing.I started to become aware, mainly through the pages of the NME, a number of bands from London who were playing music inspired by early Iggy Pop and The Stooges as well as The Ramones. The latter had made front page headlines in The Glasgow Evening Times, which had got itself in a state of moral outrage over the song â€Å"Sniffin’ Glue† arguing that the number of kids dying from glue sniffing could be increased due to the song. Bearing in mind how few copies it sold, it was nonsense.John Peel once said of the punk era â€Å"You don’t know you’re bored, until you stop being bored. † I was 17 in 1976 and probably the only band I was currently into was Dr Feelgood. They were a band playing Chuck Berry influenced songs, wearing bad suits! The prevailing music of the time was bland, inconsequential, middle of the road rubbish by Rod Stewart, The Eagles and Queen. I still remember vividly the moment I first actually heard the Sex Pistols in November 1976.My friend Davie had borrowed a copy of ‘Anarchy in the UK’ from his friend in school and we played it in my bedroom. I can remember us both laughing out loud at how different it was and how blown away we were by it. We must have played it 10 times in a row. Looking back, I think we felt like we were part of a â€Å"privileged few† who had heard the song as it was subsequently banned by all radio stations at the time, this is hard to imagine now. The 3rd single released by the Pistols, â€Å"Pretty Vacant†, could only be played on Radio 1 after 10pm.If anything, it only reinforced the Pistols credentials as the band you most wanted to be associated with. We started to see and hear of people dressed as â€Å"punks† around the city, though what constituted the punk look was very difficult to describe. It could be anything from old school jumpers ripped and worn inside out, t-shirts torn or cut and held together with safety pins with band names scrawled on in biro or marker pen or even t-shirts made from bin liners.For girls the look was heavily based on Jordan (Pamela Hook) and Siouxsie Sioux; short skirts, fishnets, and heavy eye make-up. . Glasgow District Council decided to withdraw licences of any venue which had booked punk acts, effectively banning punk in the city. Occasionally you’d hear of a secret gig being played somewhere in Glasgow and you had to meet up to be told where it was. By the Summer of 1977 I’d left school and got a job in an independent record shop and remember the clamour when the first Pistols album came out.People were waiting around in the shop for it to be delivered. Every box that arrived, we’d be asked if that was the album. First one out of the box went onto the sound system at maximum volume and we couldn’t keep up with people shoving to the front of the queue. Eventually the council lifted the ban and loads of bands came to Glasgow, many playing small gigs and doing signing sessions in the shop where I worked, including The Clash who were considered to be the most overtly â€Å"political† band of the era. ’ How to cite The Rise of Punk in 70’s Britain., Papers

love the way you lie by rihanna and mm free essay sample

Ok i would just like to say I no longer have a hate for Chris Brown. He beat Rihanna and everyone felt so bad for her but now she has a song were she says Just gonna stand there And watch me burn But thats alright Because I like The way it hurts Just gonna stand there And hear me cry But thats alright Because I love The way you lie I love the way you lie I love the way you lie She has a song saying she doesnt care about getting abused! Im sorry but this song,especially for her, is inapropriate. Little girls look up to her, I know my sisters do and the last thing they need is someone they know has been abused saying its ok to be abused. I had respect for Rihanna, I thought she was a good artist and smart but thats no longer true. We will write a custom essay sample on love the way you lie by rihanna and mm or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Love the way you lie is a stupid song that has a bad meaning.

Martin Luther King Jr. Dream Often, Dream Big, Dream Change Essay Example

Martin Luther King Jr.: Dream Often, Dream Big, Dream Change Paper Dream Often, Dream Big, Dream Change Martin Luther King, Jr. , was one of the most powerful leaders in the civil rights movement, from the bus boycott to his historical speech â€Å"I Have a Dream†. Martin Luther King presented his most inspiring speech on August 28, 1963, and it had a great impact on the United States. In his speech he emphasized phrases by repeating at the beginning of sentences. He also repeated key theme word in his speech including â€Å"freedom†, â€Å"we†, â€Å"our†, â€Å"you†, â€Å"nation†, â€Å"America†, and â€Å"dream†. Martin Luther King, Jr. also utilized appropriate quotations and allusions in his compelling speech. Using biblical verses and references to national documents like the Declaration of Independence. He used specific examples to ground his argument along with making numerous geographic references. His use of metaphors to high light contrasting concepts allowed his audience to associa te thoughts with concrete images and emotions. Martin Luther King, Jr. ’s, â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech is the most historical speech during the civil rights movement because of the impact it had on America. First of all, Martin Luther King, Jr. , wrote his speech using anaphora, repeating words at the beginning of neighboring causes. Repeating the words twice sets the pattern, and further repetitions emphasize the pattern and increase the rhetorical effect. â€Å"I have a dream† is repeated in eight successive sentences and is one of the most often cited examples of anaphora in modern rhetoric. He had many key phrases: â€Å"One hundred years later†, â€Å"now is the time†, â€Å"we must†, â€Å"we can never be satisfied†, â€Å"go back to†, â€Å"I have a dream†, â€Å"with this faith† and â€Å"let freedom ring†. In Kings speech he said â€Å"one hundred years later† four times in the beginning of his I have a dream speech. Even in the absence of the remainder of the speech, these key phrases and by extension make King’s story more memorable. The use of anaphora in Martin Luther King’s speech added emphasis to catch America’s attention. Next Martin Luther King repeated key theme words throughout his speech. â€Å"Repetition in forms like anaphora is quite obvious, but there are more subtle ways to use repetition as well. † (Dluang) If you were to count the frequency of the words used in King’s speech like â€Å"I have a dream† you would ind that it was repeated seven times (King). â€Å"The most commonly used noun is â€Å"freedom†, which is used 20 times. It makes sense, since freedom is the primary theme in the speech. † (Dluang) Other commonly repeated words: â€Å"we† repeated 30 times, â€Å"our† repeated 17 tim es, â€Å"you† repeated eight times, â€Å"nation† repeated ten times, â€Å"America† repeated five times, â€Å"justice† repeated eight times, â€Å"injustice† repeated three times, and â€Å"dream† repeated 11 times. The proper usage of repetition of key theme words in his speech brought a greater effect to the audience We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther King Jr.: Dream Often, Dream Big, Dream Change specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther King Jr.: Dream Often, Dream Big, Dream Change specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther King Jr.: Dream Often, Dream Big, Dream Change specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Another powerful speech writing technique used by Martin Luther King, Jr. , was how he utilized appropriate quotations and allusions. â€Å"Evoking history and literary references is a powerful speech writing technique which can be executed by using direct quotations or an allusion. † (Dluang) He refers to Abraham Lincoln’s famous Gettysburg Address where he begins â€Å" Four score and seven years ago† this allusion is an authentic point given that King was in front of the Lincoln Memorial. â€Å"As he began his speech â€Å"Five score years ago implying that the Emancipation Approximation was signed one hundred years ago. † (Dluang) Also in his speech he says â€Å"Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,† reference to the United States Declaration of Independence. Along with national documents he referred to numerous biblical allusions to provide a moral basis to his argument. In the second paragraph he says,† in came as a joyous daybr eak to end the long nights of their captivity,† which alludes to Psalms 30:5 â€Å"for his anger is not but for a moment, his favor is for a lifetime. Weeping may linger for the night, but joy comes with the morning. † Many more biblical verses were shared to provide the moral basis in King’s argument. To show that in the bible no matter what color or language you spoke that everyone was created equal and share the earth together so one should not discriminate another because they are different. Also providing specific examples which illustrate his logic and argument helped his speech impact many lives. Martin Luther King, Jr. made numerous specific geological references throughout his speech including Mississippi, New York, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Colorado, California, and Tennessee. He mentioned Mississippi on four separate occasions in his speech because Mississippi would evoke some of the strongest emotions and images for his audience because that is on of the most prejudice states. He also used generic geographic references like â€Å"slums and ghettos of our nort hern cities†, â€Å"the South†, â€Å"every mountainside†, and â€Å"from every village and every hamlet†. Using geographic references gave his audience an image of how life was for the Negro and the harsh injustice that was served. Lastly King’s usage of metaphors to high light contrasting thoughts to catch attention to the large audience he was speaking to. To high light the contrast between two abstract concepts, consider association them with contrasting concrete metaphors. For example, to contrast segregation with racial justice, King evokes the contrasting metaphor of the dark, desolate valley and the sunlit path, the dark, desolate valley being segregation and the sunlit path being racial justice. Martin Luther King also said, â€Å"Joyous day break to end the long night of their captivity. † Along with that he also said, â€Å"The Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. † The usage of metaphors to high light contrasting concepts allows King to associate his speech concepts with concrete images and emotions that inspire his audience. All in all Martin Luther King’s â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech is one of the most important speeches ever made during the civil rights movement. He was one of the most influential man to all African Americans. This speech had a great impact on America because of his emphasized phrases at the beginning of each sentence, his repetition of key theme words throughout his speech, appropriate usage of quotations and allusions, his specific examples that grounded his arguments, and his powerful use of metaphors to highlight contrasting concepts. He used biblical allusions to help his moral basis in his arguments. He also quoted the United States Declaration of Independence to provide reference that all Americans should be free no matter what color they are.

Bolivian Tin Mining essays

Bolivian Tin Mining essays Bolivia has a long history as a mining country. During the Colonial period, the Cerro Ricco de Potosi mine enriched the Spanish Empire with the enormous quantities of silver it produced for over four hundred years. And throughout the years of tin was often found along side the silver being mined. At the tail end of Colonial silver mining, large quantity of tin was discarded as waste. In 1865 the price of silver began declining in response to several factors; rich deposits were found in California; a declining demand in Eastern Countries and the increased use of paper as currency. When silver collapsed on the International Market, it was impossible to transfer the technology and communications to other metals. Yet, an expansion of world demand for tin, in canning and other industrial uses, allowed Bolivia to capitalize on its resources and quickly respond to international demand. The availability of cheap labor and railroad transportation in Bolivia meant suddenly it became profitable for Bolivia to ship this mineral, making the transition from silver to tin a relatively easy one for the Bolivian economy to make. (Klein 163) Around the same time in 1894, a man named Simon Patino purchased his first share in a tin mine. The mine was in Orerro, in the canton of Unicia, on the border of the province of Potosi. Patino was a mestizo white collar mine employee who ended up purchasing full control of the mine by 1897. In 1900 he struck one of the richest veins ever found in Bolivia. Acquiring vast European holdings in nonmining and mining-related investments eventually made Patino one of the fourth wealthiest men in the world. Managers for Patino Mines dictated policy to the Bolivian government. As Bolivias most powerful capitalist, he often extended large private loans to the government for tax concessions and political favors, holding virtual veto powe...

Popular Music Since The 1950s As The Exploitation Of Black Music By Essay

Popular Music Since The 1950s As The Exploitation Of Black Music By White Artists And Corporations - Essay Example A number of scholars propose the idea that African-American culture and music were effective expression forms and social inclusion means. Although they originate from the folk music of the African-American slaves, â€Å"the root cause of transnational black identity† (Gilroy The Black Atlantic 1992, p.60), it served as an effective instrument for cultural and social inclusion throughout the 20th century. The introduction of blues, jazz and other black music genres provided blacks a strong impact over American culture and a distinguishing place in a society that was fundamentally closed to black people well into the 20th century (Chiriguayo 2002), (Dwight 1995). In the study The Spirituals and the Blues the African-American scholar James H. Cone (1991, p. 130) argued that â€Å"whatever form black music takes, it is always an expression of black life in America and what the people must do to survive with a measure of dignity in a society which seems bent on destroying their ri ght to be human beings†. The book Blues People is the first real try to place major black music genres as blues and jazz within the setting of Afro-American social history, it illuminates the impact of blacks on American history and culture. Terry Jones (2005) asserts that the blues is a musical opera about life and times of Black America. The blues is the story of Black America in worldly musical form. However, Harrison (1997, p. 18) insisted that â€Å"blues was always a multi-racial music.... The Wikipedia encyclopedia, defines that the term exploitation may carry two distinct meanings: (1) the act of utilizing something for any purpose. In this case, exploit is a synonym for use; (2) the act of utilizing something in an unjust or cruel manner for one's own advantage. Most often, the word exploitation is used to refer to economic exploitation - the act of using another person's labor without offering them an adequate compensation. The Marxist theory is primarily concerned with the exploitation of a whole segment or class of society by another. From this point of view the black music is exploited by whites. Article of Phil Rubio 'Crossover Dreams' (1993) provides a curious vision of the confrontation between black art forms and white performers. In many cases white musicians are motivated by envy or admiration for the emulated black performers. And we see the utilization of African-American culture by whites to find the spirit and humanity, they feel they've lost. It is known that the end of a constant source of interchange and friction should not be seen as the start as 'whites have been playing black music for decades' (Davis 1995, p.84). We are not to locate the first white blues performer. The phenomenon of numerous white musicians taking up the black music is a fairly modern spectacle, beginning in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. One of the first objections to this phenomenon was made by Charles Radcliffe in the UK publication Anarchy (1965). Of course, many people did not consider singing in a black vocal style to be part of blues performance, moreover many feel that whites who have uneasy destiny, for example Hank Williams, sing in their own suffering manner, a distinctively non-black style. We can agree that

Applied Business Research-week 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Applied Business Research-week 4 - Assignment Example Managers will not stop talking and researching about happiness at workplace for they understand that their clients will get satisfactory services, hence improving the corporation’s sales as happiness possessed by the workforce will effortlessly manipulate customers’ loyalty toward their products. Finally, get assured that many individuals have understood the importance happiness in workplace while others are yet to encounter its significance. Therefore, the talk about happiness will continue. In the article, the authors strive to define positive psychology as scientifically informed acuity on what make life worth living. The writers also tried to elucidate the derivation of positive psychology as they believe that it originated from Maslow book called motivational and personality of 1954. It was hypothesized in 1998 by Martin Seligman who realized that positive psychology has left out two things; helping people to live a productive and fulfilling lives and also nurture high aptitudes (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive psychology is anticipated to grow steadily and thus helping psychologist to better understand the society and thus using this new branch of psychology in resolving problems confronting humankind. The authors have also exposed how positive psychology is skillful at shaping vital conceptions to be used by individuals in asphyxiating impending problems. In conclusion, the authors have emphasized that people should synthesize on positive and negative life factors that they face in their daily lives thus using them to live a praiseworthy life. Employee morale significantly relate in fostering happiness in the workplace. Morale, certainly, is something that cannot be bought, but is attained within the working surroundings of an individual. Therefore, the same environment must be capable of providing opportunities where one is trusted, valued and respected. This is

Overview of Cytokinins (CK)

Overview of Cytokinins (CK) FARA SHAKEEL CYTOKININS: Cytokinins (CK) are a class of plant growth substances (phytohormones) that promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf senescence. STRUCTURE OF CYTOKININS: NATURE OF CYTOKININS: Cytokinins are compounds with a structure resembling adenine which promote cell division and have other similar functions to kinetin. Kinetin was the first cytokinin discovered and so named because of the compounds ability to promote cytokinesis (cell division). Though it is a natural compound, It is not made in plants, and is therefore usually considered a synthetic cytokinin (meaning that the hormone is synthesized somewhere other than in a plant). The most common form of naturally occurring cytokinin in plants today is called zeatin which was isolated from corn (Zea mays) Cytokinins have been found in almost all higher plants as well as mosses, fungi, bacteria, and also in tRNA of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Today there are more than 200 natural and synthetic cytokinins combined. Cytokinin concentrations are highest in meristematic regions and areas of continuous growth potential such as roots, young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds (Arteca, 1996; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). HISTORY OF CYTOKININS: In 1913, Gottlieb Haberlandt discovered that a compound found in phloem had the ability to stimulate cell division (Haberlandt, 1913). In 1941, Johannes van Overbeek discovered that the milky endosperm from coconut also had this ability. He also showed that various other plant species had compounds which stimulated cell division (van Overbeek, 1941). In 1954, Jablonski and Skoog extended the work of Haberlandt showing that vascular tissues contained compounds which promote cell division (Jablonski and Skoog, 1954). The first cytokinin was isolated from herring sperm in 1955 by Miller and his associates (Miller et al., 1955). This compound was named kinetin because of its ability to promote cytokinesis. Hall and deRopp reported that kinetin could be formed from DNA degradation products in 1955 (Hall and deRopp, 1955). The first naturally occurring cytokinin was isolated from corn in 1961 by Miller (Miller, 1961). It was later called zeatin. Almost simultaneous w ith Miller Letham published a report on zeatin as a factor inducing cell division and later described its chemical properties (Letham, 1963). It is Miller and Letham that are credited with the simultaneous discovery of zeatin. Since that time, many more naturally occurring cytokinins have been isolated and the compound is ubiquitous to all plant species in one form or another (Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). BIOSYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM: Cytokinin is generally found in higher concentrations in meristematic regions and growing tissues. They are believed to be synthesized in the roots and translocated via the xylem to shoots. Cytokinin biosynthesis happens through the biochemical modification of adenine. The process by which they are synthesized is as follows (McGaw, 1995; Salisbury and Ross, 1992): A product of the mevalonate pathway called isopentyl pyrophosphate is isomerized. This isomer can then react with adenosine monophosphate with the aid of an enzyme called isopentenyl AMP synthase. The result is isopentenyl adenosine-5-phosphate (isopentenyl AMP). This product can then be converted to isopentenyl adenosine by removal of the phosphate by a phosphatase and further converted to isopentenyl adenine by removal of the ribose group. Isopentenyl adenine can be converted to the three major forms of naturally occurring cytokinins. Other pathways or slight alterations of this one probably l ead to the other forms. Degradation of cytokinins occurs largely due to the enzyme cytokinin oxidase. This enzyme removes the side chain and releases adenine. Derivitives can also be made but the pathways are more complex and poorly understood. TRANSPORT: via xylem (transpiration stream) in peas, a signal from the leaves may signal/regulate transport of cytokinins from the roots zeatin ribosides are the main transport form; converted to the free base or glucosides in the leaves some cytokinin also moves in the phloem. Mode of action: The ratio of auxin to cytokinin plays an important role in the effect of cytokinin on plant growth. Cytokinin alone has no effect on parenchyma cells. When cultured with auxin but no cytokinin, they grow large but do not divide. When cytokinin is added, the cells expand and differentiate. When cytokinin and auxin are present in equal levels, the parenchyma cells form an undifferentiated callus. More cytokinin induces growth of shoot buds, while more auxin induces root formation. Cytokinins are involved in many plant processes, including cell division and shoot and root morphogenesis. They are known to regulate axillary bud growth and apical dominance. The direct inhibition hypothesis posits that these effects result from the cytokinin to auxin ratio. This theory states that auxin from apical buds travels down shoots to inhibit axillary bud growth. This promotes shoot growth, and restricts lateral branching. Cytokinin moves from the roots into the shoots, eventually signaling lateral bud growth. Simple experiments support this theory. When the apical bud is removed, the axillary buds are uninhibited, lateral growth increases, and plants become bushier. Applying auxin to the cut stem again inhibits lateral dominance. While cytokinin action in vascular plants is described as pleiotropic, this class of plant hormones specifically induces the transition from apical growth to growth via a three-faced apical cell in moss protonema. This bud induction can be pinpointed to differentiation of a specific single cell, and thus is a very specific effect of cytokinin. Cytokinins have been shown to slow aging of plant organs by preventing protein breakdown, activating protein synthesis, and assembling nutrients from nearby tissues. A study that regulated leaf senescence in tobacco leaves found that wild-type leaves yellowed while transgenic leaves remained mostly green. It was hypothesized that cytokinin may affect enzymes that regulate protein synthesis and degradation. CHEMISTRY: A. General adenine derivatives (amino purines) occur as: (a) the free nitrogenous base; (b) a nucleoside (base + ribose); (c) a nucleotide (base + ribose + phosphate); or (d) glycosides The free base is the active form. approximately 40 different structures known. Zeatin (Z), which was first isolated from maize (Zea mays) is the most common cytokinin. Other naturally occurring cytokinins include, dihydrozeatin (DHZ) and isopentenyladenosine (IPA). B. Synthetic cytokinins kinetin – probably byproduct of zeatin degradation there are several other substances with cytokinin activity such as benzyl adenine (benzylaminopurine; BA). C. Cytokinins and nucleic acids can occur as a modified base in tRNA, but the bases exist in the cis form, rather than the typical trans form. These modified bases that are found in all organisms from bacteria to plants to humans. The function of the tRNA cytokinins is not clear, but after hydrolysis of the tRNA the products can act as a cytokinin. The importance of the tRNA derived cytokinins in overall growth and development is not clear, either. Interestingly plants have different sets of tRNA’s with different cytokinins that participate in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm and the plastids. CYTOKININS FUNCTION: A list of some of the known physiological effects caused by cytokinins are listed below. The response will vary depending on the type of cytokinin and plant species (Davies, 1995; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). Stimulates cell division. Stimulates morphogenesis (shoot initiation/bud formation) in tissue culture. Stimulates the growth of lateral buds-release of apical dominance. Stimulates leaf expansion resulting from cell enlargement. May enhance stomatal opening in some species. Promotes the conversion of etioplasts into chloroplasts via stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis ROLE OF CYTOKININS IN PLANTS: Cytokinins are known from cytokinin-overproducing mutants to produce additional leaves and branches on the stem. The stems and leaves produce additional chlorophyll. Wounding often produces a new branch. Leaf senescence is delayed. Apical dominance is released. Cuttings produce adventitious roots slowly and require additional auxin to reliably root. Tumors may form at nodes. The results of applied cytokinins could include release of apical dominance as you demonstrated in kidney beans in laboratory. Cytokinins regulate the cell cycle as we learned early in the semester. Cytokinins delay senescence. You carried out this project at home with isolated wheat primary leaf tips in various solutions of plant hormones. Those treated with cytokinins should have demonstrated delayed senescence (stayed green longer). Of course, remember the auxin dose responsethere is such a thing as too much of a good thing! Cytokinins cause nutrient diversion. Cytokinin-treated leaves become sinks for nutrients such as amino acids. This is shown in a classic experiment in plant physiology CYTOKININS CONJUGATION: As you can see in the diagram below, the natural cytokinin ribosides can be attached to sugars to form glycosides that have reduced or no cytokinin activity. The plant also can produce enzymes to cleave the sugar and restore full cytokinin activity. Thus conjugation with sugars and retrieval from these bound forms is a possible pathway in plant cells. However, it is also true that the ribosides themselves are a form of conjugation. All studies to date seem to indicate that the free-base has to be cleaved from the ribose too before the compound has any true activity. Plants carry out this reaction easily and rapidly, so ribosides appear to have activity on their own, but this is an artifact. Cells in culture require the cytokinin to be freethese sometimes lack the enzymes to cleave the ribose, so supplied ribosides are inactive and the free-base must be supplied in the medium. The native cytokinins also occur as modified bases in RNA and DNA strands. In fact cis-zeatin (a less active form) is found in many tRNA molecules in almost all living cells of all species! The extent to which the free cytokinin pool is altered by conjugation with other nucleotides or released from nucleotide polymers is not clear. CYTOKININS DEGRADATION: In addition to synthesis and conjugation, the pools of cytokinins can be altered by degradation. Below is how one natural cytokinin is made inactive: REFERENCES http://www.plant-hormones.info/cytokinins.htm Kieber JJ (March 2002). Tribute to Folke Skoog: Recent Advances in our Understanding of Cytokinin Biology. J. Plant Growth Regul. 21 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1007/s003440010059. PMID11981613. Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa Andrea.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven Alexander.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert Bradley (2008). Biology (8th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson, Benjamin Cummings. pp.827–30. Chen CM, Ertl JR, Leisner SM, Chang CC (July 1985). GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY,LAHOREPage 1

Compare and Contrast Presidents Essay

Like any two people in the world Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan both have their own views about war, women’s rights, gay rights, foreign policy, and many other problems facing our country. These two presidents have greatly impacted our country since they were in office. Roosevelt and Reagan have helped shape our country into what it is today. Franklin D. Roosevelt was born in 1882 in New York. He went to Harvard University and Columbia Law School. He was elected New York senate in 1910. In 1921 he was diagnosed with poliomyelitis. In 1928 Roosevelt became the Governor of New York. He was elected the 32nd president of the United States in November 1932. There were thirteen million unemployed by March and nearly every bank was closed. Roosevelt made it his main goal to restore businesses and agriculture. Three years later our nation had achieved somewhat recovery. Businessmen and bankers still blamed the horrific economy on the current president. His idea was called the Roosevelt’s New Deal program. Not too many people were thrilled about this program to say the least. He took the nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the budget. After this program failed, Roosevelt made a new program or Hanson 2 reform known as Social Security. This put heavier taxes on the wealthy, new controls over the banks, and a huge relief program for the economy. While Roosevelt was president he also added the United States to the â€Å"good neighbor† policy. Its main principle was that of non-intervention and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America. Another goal was to keep the United States out of war in Europe. A huge event all of us know was the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. This officially got us involved in World War II. Although Roosevelt didn’t like confliction he announced a global war. Ronald Reagan was born on February 6, 1911 in Illinois. He attended Eureka College and studied economics and sociology. As Reagan grew older his political views went from liberal to conservative. In 1966 he was elected governor of California then re-elected in 1970. In 1980 Reagan won the Republican Presidential nomination then took office on January 20, 1981. He won the presidential race easily due to the inflation and secret of Americans in Iran. Only sixty-nine days later after he took office he was shot. While Reagan was in office the economy grew, inflation lessened, employment increased, and national defense was strengthened. He helped the economy by cutting taxes and government expenses. In 1984, Reagan won a second term due to his brilliance in his first. At the end of his presidency the nation had the longest period of peacetime prosperity without recession or depression. Both Roosevelt and Reagan dealt with major events involving foreign affairs. During Reagans two terms he increased defense spending 35 percent, but sought to improve relations with the Soviet Union. He attended meetings with Soviet leader Hanson 3 Mikhail Gorbachev and negotiated a treaty that would eliminate intermediate-range nuclear missiles. Reagan also declared war against international terrorism, sending American bombers against Libya after evidence came out that Libya was involved in an attack on American soldiers in a West Berlin nightclub. While Roosevelt was president he wanted to increase the influence and prestige of the United States on the world and make the country a global power. One of Roosevelt’s famous quotes was â€Å"speak softly and carry a big stick†. He was willing to use force when needed but also using persuasion instead of violence. One of the biggest foreign policies involved in his presidency was that of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt was aggressive with foreign policy and so was Reagan. During Reagans presidency the economy was in pretty good shape. The economy grew, inflation lessened, employment increased, and national defense was strengthened. He helped the economy by cutting taxes and government expenses as well. Roosevelt on the other hand wasn’t as lucky with the economy as Reagan. Roosevelt took presidency during the great depression. He had to make huge efforts and changes to try to get the economy back on track. Over the next eight years, the government instituted a series of experimental projects and programs, known collectively as the New Deal. This was aimed to restore some measure of dignity and prosperity to many Americans. Both Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan had very eventful office terms. They also had their differences. While Roosevelt was president the 22nd Amendment wasn’t made so the presidential term was longer than it is today. Both presidents had to deal with wars, foreign affairs, tax cuts, and reduction on government Hanson 4 spending. Also, before Reagan and Roosevelt were elected president they were Governors of states as well. Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt played major roles in making our country into what it is today. Without these two presidents I don’t know where our country would be. Both helped our economy tremendously, strengthen our foreign affairs, and made America a global leader. Granted they had different views on some things; they still were two great presidents. Hanson 5 Work Cited Beschloss, Michael, and Hugh Sidey. The Presidents of the United States of America. White House Historical Association, 2009. Web. . Beschloss, Michael, and Hugh Sidey. The Presidents of the United States of America. White House Historical Association, 2009. Web. . Garrison, Justin. â€Å"A Covenant with all Mankind: Ronald Reagan’s Idyllic Vision of America in the World.† Vol. 21.Issue 1/2 (2008): p34-63, 30p. Print. PIOUS, RICHARD M. Presidential Studies Quarterly. Mar2012, Vol. 42 Issue 1, p190-204. 15p. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.03948.x.

Apple Business Strategy Analysis

| Brief description of PC and Smartphone’s industry Smartphones| Company| Market share| Key success factors| Android| 68,1%| * software * innovation * synchronization with google account| Apple| 16,9%| * design * style * size * capacity * software * download facility * distribution| Blackberry| 4,8%| * reliability * carrier friendly * design| Nokia| 4,4%| * price efficiency * reliability * distribution * client's service| PC| Company| Market share| Key success factors| HP| 17,2%| * reliability * client's service * hardware * fingerprint reader| Lenovo| 13,0%| * design * price friendly|Dell| 12,1%| * design * extended product line * worldwide client's support * reliability| Acer| 11,2%| * price effiency| Asus| 5,9%| * design * price friendly| Tablets| Apple| 61,4%| * design * processor * weight * storage * capacity * style| Samsung| 7,5%| * innovation * design * capacity | The worldwide sales of tablets are almost doubled in 2012 and PC market slightly decreases as a whole. Wit h the launch of iPad2 more customers switched to buying alternative device or PC looks like tablets. Apple iOS takes 61,4% of worldwide tablet sales.Samsung is on the second place with 7,5%. Resources of Apple. Potential for scale, experience and scope economies Strong know-how, RFS, RMS, new Product Development Programme, together with skilled human resources represents well integrated resources of the company. Diversified product line and high quality software and hardware allow sharing the resources of the company among existing businesses. This may create economies of scope, which saves costs. The size of the company, level of innovations, design and strong brand name gives to Apple competitive advantage.Company uses economies of scale, having achieved multi channel marketing and mostly cut the middleman and this is decreases the costs and increases the margin to Apple and consequently lower costs for the customers. Strengths of Apple. Core competencies Due to financial strength and inherited hardware and software company was able to extend product line and created a new market instead of displacing existing one. Apple relies on a new Product Development Program of Kaizen in the product offer keeping in this way high loyalty of the customers and meeting their needs.Core competence consists of constant innovations and creating added value for customers in terms of innovative design and technology Strategic fit of Apple Key success factors Core pompetence| Style| Size| Software| Download facility| Design| 5| 5| 5| 5| Quality| 5|   | 5|   | Capacity|   |   |   | 5| We observe strong fit between company’s core competencies and key success factors. Apple develops the program of constant improvement of the product as well as use experience which is resulted is extremely high performance and flourishing of the company. SWOT analysis for Apple | Opportunities;Time| | Short-medium term| Medium-long term|Strengths| Innovative Design | Strong brand L eading market position of digital market| Weaknesses| Simple immitation| Cannibalisation| Vision ; Mission Vision: * Keep leading position at the worldwide market * Focused on the future * Penetrate the markets where company can make big contribution to society Mission: * Design best personal computers * Innovations in digital music with (iPod, iTunes online stores) * Innovation of iPhone and iPad in terms of favorable market conditions * Design and develop own operating system, hardware, application software * Design new customer products with superior easy-of-use R;D Apple’s objectives Objectives: In a line with company’s mission presumably Apple is mostly focused on non-financial objectives such as constant improving of the product offer and quality of the devices, expanding of distribution network to reach more targeted customers * Innovation: shorten the innovation cycle to 12 months * Quality: Keizer mantra Apple Strategy overview | Products-markets| Vertical Int egration| Internationalization| Diversification| International Development| Expansion of distribution hannels creat best pc, portable digital music, mobile communication, iPad3| Vertical integration into retail combined with online store and iTunes Store| Growth shift outside US because of global demand for iPhone, iPads mainly to Asia Pacific, Europe, Japan Apple Stores expansion aimed internationally| increasing number of iOS devices – iPhones Macs iPads iPods| Mergers;Acquizition  | Security hardware and software for PCs and mobile devicesFlash memory| AuthenTecAnobit (Israel) |   -|   -| Strategic Alliances  | Market alliances in the supply chain and designn development|   -|   -|   -|In terms of Mergers ; Acquisitions company tends to have conservative trends. Company leaves to be more focused on innovative technologies to make their product unique.

Characteristics of Developing Countries - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 15 Words: 4522 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/09/15 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? The theme of this essay is: the importance of a study of other semi-developed countries as they struggle for economic growth, the elimination of mass poverty and, at the political level, for democratisation and the reduction of reliance on coercion. New countries are finding their voices in all sorts of ways and are managing to interest an international audience. South Africa is not least among them; contemporary international consciousness of the travail of our particular path towards modernity testifies at least to a considerable national talent for dramatic communication and (for those who care to look more deeply) a far from extinct tradition of moral conscientiousness. One aspect of this flowering is a rapidly growing crop of social scientific studies of semi-developed countries of which this university is fortunate to have a substantial collection, contained mainly in the library of Jan Smuts House. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Characteristics of Developing Countries" essay for you Create order From this literature, one can extract five themes of particular interest. The first is the problem of uneven development and effective national unification, especially in deeply divided societies. Capitalist development has impinged on semi-developed countries from outside rather than transforming slowly from within, incorporating different groups in different ways. Particular problems arise when differential incorporation coincides in substantial measure with boundaries between ethnic groups. If Donald Horowitzs remarkable study of ethnic groups in conflict is right, more energy goes into attempting to maximise differences in the welfare of in groups and out groups than into maximising their joint welfare, with adverse consequences for the possibilities of building the national political and economic institutions required for development. Gordon Tullock has argued that this is an additional reason for preferring market-based rather than state-led economic growth in deeply divided societies. In itself it is, but the secondary effects of different paths on distribution have to be taken into account. In so far as they lead to worsening differentials between groups, the possibility of heightened conflict is created. The only long-term hope is to make ethnic boundaries less salient; the happiest outcome would seem to be when ethnicity becomes decorative in a high income economic environment. This is likely to be the work of decades, perhaps of centuries; even so, appalling retrogressions always seem to remain possible. The consequence of deep divisions is that there is likely to exist an unusually large number of prisoners dilemma situations. The prisoners dilemma arises when partners in crime are apprehended and held separately. The prisoners will be jointly better off if they do not inform on each other, but each prisoner will be better off if he informs on the other, while the other does not inform on him. Attempts at individual maximisation may lead to both prisoners informing on each other which leads to the worst joint outcome. The dilemma arises because of the absence of the opportunity for co-operation. ) Under such conditions, negotiation skills are at a premium. There are also advantages in the acceptance of a deontological liberal philosophy which (in the shorthand of political philosophers) places the right over the good. This involves seeking to regulate social relations by just procedures while leaving individuals as free as possible to pursue their own, diverse conceptions of the good life. Such an enterprise has a better chance of success if its conception of justice implies that attention should be paid simultaneously to the reduction of poverty. The analytical Marxist, Adam Przeworski has analysed analogous problems which arise in the case of severe class conflict. In his view, social democratic compromises are held together by virtue of the propensity of capitalists to reinvest part of their profits with the effect of increasing worker incomes in the future. Class compromise is made possible by two simultaneous expectations: workers expect that their incomes will rise over time, while capitalists expect to be able to devote some of their profits to consumption. In conditions of severe class conflict, these expectations about the future become uncertain, time horizons shorten, workers become militant, capitalists disinvest and political instability results. Three forms of resolution are available: stabilising external intervention, negotiation or renegotiation of a social contract or the strengthening of the position of one or other class by a shift towards conservatism or revolution. Przeworskis sternest warnings are to Marxists who assume that revolution and the introduction of socialism is the inevitable outcome of a crisis. The second theme in the literature on semi-developed countries has to do with their position within the world economy. Three related sub-themes can be identified. Firstly, there has been a debate about the forms and limits of the diffusion of industrialisation. Dependency theory now somewhat out of fashion, since its predictions of severe limitations on industrialisation in developing countries have been falsified asserted that relationships between developing and developed countries are such as to keep the latter in perpetual economic subordination. The contrary thesis that advanced industrial countries have had to deal with increased competition arising from quite widespread diffusion now seems more plausible. Lester Thurow, for instance, has argued that the increase in inequality in the United States since the late 1970s is not to be attributed either to the Reagan administrations tax welfare policies nor to demographic change, but to intense international competitive pressures coupled with high unemployment. Secondly, some theorists have asserted that a process of the globalisation of capital unprecedented opportunities for international movement of short-term and long-term capital has removed the possibilities of national reformism (i. e. lass compromise reached at the level of the nation state) and is ushering in a period of global class conflict. If there is any truth in this hypothesis at all, it would have to be qualified both by a careful study of precisely how the capital (and trade) flows of the 1980s differed from those of earlier periods and the sorts of changes in national policy choices capable of delivering a broadly-based rise in living standards which follow from these di fferences. Even if some options may have disappeared, it does not follow that new ones are not available. Finally, there has been a preoccupation with the problems of structural adjustment (in both developed and developing economies) necessitated by a changing international environment. Structural adjustment is a subject for both economic and political analysis. At the economic level the issues of maintaining macroeconomic balance, changing industrial and manpower policy and protecting the poor against a period of deflation which is or seems to be necessary in many cases, all have to be considered. Political problems arise when it comes to the distribution of the burdens of adjustment and the creation of new capacities for development. Lack of ability to handle structural adjustment problems can lead to a variety of outcomes, from the shifting of a large part of the burden of change to future generations (as both the United States and Brazil have done in recent years), to loss of control at the macroeconomic level leading to rapid drops in living standards, hyperinflation and/or defaults on international obligations, political instability and even regime change. Identification and study of the capacities available to avoid undesirable outcomes are of considerable interest. The third theme in the semi-developed country literature is that of the relationship between economic inequality and political conflict. Characteristically, semi-developed countries have more unequal distributions of income between households than developed countries. It used to be thought that inequality peaked at the intermediate stage of development, partly because of limitations of the spread of education (and therefore of human capital) and partly because low-paying sectors continued to account for a substantial proportion of employment. Recent evidence has thrown doubt on the view that inequality necessarily increases during the early stages of development; it is much clearer that it tends to decrease during the later stages. The relationship between economic inequality and political conflict is also complex: studies of cross-national correlations between indicators of the two phenomena have led to unclear, even contradictory results. One reasonably robust result is that revolutions at a relatively early stage of development have much to do with inequality in land holdings. But coherent fmdings in semi-developed countries are virtually non-existent. Part of the reason for this is mindless number-crunching with insufficient attention paid to the theoretical tradition dealing with conflict and revolution. There is probably quite a lot to be said, for instance, for the Hobbesian view that the proximate cause of violent conflict is itself political in the form of the weakening of the power of the state. Economic factors may also matter, but among these, income distribution may be relatively unimportant and improvements may play as significant a role as deterioration. Rational actor models of regime change have recently appeared in the political science literature. John Roemer, for instance, conceives of revolution as a two person game between the present ruler (whom he calls the Tsar) and a revolutionary entrepreneur, whose name is Lenin. In his attempt to ovethrow the Tsar, Lenin can propose redistribution of the fixed pie of income. The Tsar can announce a list of penalties which define what each agent who chooses to join Lenin will forfeit, should the revolution fail. Each possible coalition of the population has a probability of succeeding in making the revolution, depending on its size and composition. Lenin chooses the income redistribution which maximises the probability of overthrowing the Tsar and the Tsar in turn chooses the list of penalties which minimises this maximum value. The solution to this minimax game defines the instability of the regime, i. e. the probability tht it will be overthrown. From game theoretical results, Roemer is able to draw conclusions about the strategies of the players according with experience. For instance, the Tsar will treat the poor harshly and let off the rich lightly if the conditional probabilities of revolution by coalitions are the least bit sensitive to the penalties announced. Lenin, on the other hand, will only propose a progressive redistribution of income as his optimal strategy under some circumstances. Highly probable revolutions are highly polarised revolutions. Lurking in this literature is also the issue of whether a coherent distinction can be made between revolutions and other forms of regime change, but exploration of that issue would require a lecture of its own. The fourth theme in the semi-developed country literature concerns the bearers of the capacities for economic development. In no society are these likely to be located wholly within the state or within the private sector. Instead, rather complicated networks able to mount major initiatives may straddle both the public and private sectors. In some semi-developed countries described as bureaucratic authoritarian, it may even be the case that some parts of the state continue to act with leading components of the private sector to manage economic development, while other parts of the state induce periodic crises by losing macro-economic control. Two debates in political science are relevant here. The first concerns the nature and functions of civil society. In its classical use by Adam Smith and Hegel, civil society refers to a social system sufficiently productively advanced and regulated by morality and law to be able to support both the division of labour and the institution of private property. Hegel throws in the police and the civil service as regulators of last resort for good measure. The term civil society has been taken up in recent South African debate, sometimes in a rather quaint fashion one contributor to a recent seminar defined it as consisting of the trade unions, civics, the SA Council of Churches and the Kagiso Trust! Marxists have criticised liberals for representing the interests of a part as the good of the whole; liberals, it seems, are not the only people capable of making that mistake. A more interesting redefinition of the term has been proposed by Michael Lipton who reserves for it institutions forming neither part of the state nor part of the market, but whose influence may make both state and market function more efficiently. The original definitions are probably the most useful; in terms of them, the strengthening of civil society is indeed a prerequisite for development. It amounts to developing new specialisations, to building institutions with new capacities and to creating the attitudes and legal framework necessary to support these endeavours. Much of the time, these changes will evolve from existing resources and capacities. But there are also periods of rapid and discontinuous change in which the positions of major groups within societies are fundamentally changed. This amounts to a social and economic revolution, which may or may not be accompanied by a political revolution. At the analytical level, the classical Marxist conflation of the social, economic and political processes is a serious distortion. At the political level, versions of the Marxist formulation have been used to represent the most grinding political oppression as inaugurating social and economic emancipation. The second political debate is about corporatism. This refers to a situation in which powerful organised interests play a major role in political life as opposed to individuals organised into political parties in a liberal democratic system. Indeed, to the liberal ear, the term corporatism has an authoritarian sound about it. Powerful organised interests, of course, exist in liberal democracies but these function as interest groups with no formal political status. Corporatism emerges when political institutions are shaped to include them. An important distinction needs to be drawn between democratic corporatism where these arrangements are subject to choices made by the electorate in regular elections and authoritarian corporatism where they are not. Fascist Italy and some Latin American countries provide examples of the latter and the European democracies examples of the former. The mildest form of corporatism is probably tripartite institutions comprised of trade unions, employer organisations and state departments. These participate in the determination of macroeconomic and/or labour market policy in advanced industrial countries, the whole process being described as that of a social contract. Democratic corporatism is subject to changes depending on changes of opinion within the electorate; particular forms put together by left of centre governments are often modified or dissolved by succeeding conservative governments. Authoritarian corporatism, on the other hand, produces an oligarchical system based on deals between elites which sometimes deliver stability and economic growth, quite possibly for long periods of time, but which are not subject to popular approval. Indeed, they are characteristically accompanied by a substantial degree of repression. In this way they contain divergences of interest which would rip liberal democracies apart. Even in democracies, corporatist arrangements display a degree of inertia; it appears from the recent literature that the welfare state has been more resistant to conservative dismantling in European countries in which corporatist arrangements have been well developed. They also deliver control; it has also been suggested that corporatist structures (as well as a highly competitive configuration) in the labour market result in lower real wages than collective bargaining between employers and industry-wide trade unions. Democratic systems in which linguistic, religious and ethnic identities perform the function of corporations are referred to as consociational and have some of the same authoritarian logic as corporatist systems. The final theme of interest in the literature on semi-developed countries is that of the transition from authoritarian to democratic rule, the subject of a major scholarly enterprise directed from the Woodrow Wilson International Centre at Princeton University about a decade ago. Alfred Stepan pointed out that there are a number of distinctive paths leading to democratiastion: in some, warfare and conquest play an integral part, as in Europe after the Second World War. Here, three sub-cases can be distinguished: internal restoration of democracy after external conquest, redemocratisation after a conqueror has been defeated by external force, and externally monitored installation of democracy. In others, the termination of authoritarian regimes is initiated by the wielders of authoritarian power themselves. In yet others, oppositional forces play a major role in terminating authoritarian rule via diffuse protests by grass-roots organisations, general strikes and general withdrawal of support for the government, by the formation of a grand oppositional pact, possibly with consociational features, by organised violent revolt co-ordinated by democratic reformist parties or by Marxist-led revolutionary war (though the latter has usually led to the installation of an authoritarian successor regime). These are all ideal types with rather different dynamics; any actual process is likely to contain elements of more than oue ideal type. In a companion piece, John Sheahan observes that economic policy in support of democratisation must meet two conflicting requirements. On the one hand, economic growth requires the ability to limit claims which would seriously damage efficiency or outrun productive capacity. On the other, policy must deliver sufficient fulfilment of the expectations of politically aware groups to gain and hold their acceptance. Both external economic circumstances and internal political conflicts are capable of rendering impossible the striking of a viable balance between these requirements, with the result that the process of democratisation aborts. The position is complicated in countries which have a long history of import substitution resulting in high levels of protection but which now need to re-orient themselves in order to promote exports. In such cases, the timing of structural adjustment and increases in domestic demand pose tricky problems of economic management. The overall objective must be to permit the most rapid and broadly based rise in domestic demand while maintaining external balance, subject to the constraints arising from the structure of the domestic labour market. Part of successful management must involve the greatest possible exploitation of new willingness to co-operate induced by the democratisation process itself. Adroit proposals are needed which reduce initially high risks and increase incentives to support economic growth among the principal parties at each stage in the process. Some reconceptualisation of interests is essential. Intelligent international support allowing constraints to be relaxed at crucial junctures is also of considerable importance. It is sometimes supposed that the transformation of an authoritarian regime into a democracy is a fragile process, for the success of which a range of necessary conditions has to be present. In particular, it is argued both that a democracy has small chance of survival if it does not deliver social and economic improvements for the population at large and that democracies are unable to administer the economic medicine required by crisis conditions. A recent study of Latin American countries since 1982, however, finds that democracies not only handled economic crises as effectively as authoritarian regimes; they also achieved a far better record of avoiding acute crises in the first place. The puzzle turns out not to be the fragility of democracy, but its vitality. The suggestion is that both the behaviour of political elites and their followers has been misdescribed. On the one hand, democratic governments that displace highly repressive or widely discredited authoritarian regimes may count on a special reserve of political support and trust to carry them through economic crises. On the other, elected officials may understand the self-defeating nature of enhancing their legitimacy by delivering material payoffs to the bulk of the population, even at the cost of financial disaster. So far, this lecture has not been about South Africa, but has been concerned to identify intellectual resources which might be used when thinking about South African problems. Time permits only a sketchy application of some ideas to our present circumstances. Let me start from the economic side. One of the more encouraging features of our economic evolution in the last few years is that, although real per capita incomes have declined, the evidence suggests that the distribution of income has improved to such an extent that the proportion of households in poverty did not increase in the years between 1985 and 1990 and probably declined slightly despite a drop in real per capita incomes. The burden of the decline has been borne by the relatively well-to-do if not by the very rich. This trend is unlikely to be sustained in the face of further economic decline. On the contrary, the prospects for the poor will be served by rapid economic growth; far from there being a conflict between growth and equality in South Africa, the two processes will reinforce each other, especially given appropriate policies. In the light of the importance of a widespread improvement in standards of living to the sustenance of the process of democratisation, it is in the interests of all parties who desire a negotiated settlement to support developments which increase growth. But where is this growth to come from? All the contemporary evidence suggests that the balance of payments is critical. It is possible to argue in theoretical terms that there ought to be no such thing as a balance of payments constraint. But there is no policy purchase to be had from a static comparison between our present situation and a superior one. A path from the one state to the other has to be specified. There are two difficulties in doing so. Firstly, the path to a better state depends on what other countries are doing. Prisoners dilemmas certainly exist at the level of international trade as the very existence of the GATT system testifies. Secondly, since the process has to be supported politically, the distribution of the costs of adjustment borne by domestic actors has to be taken into account. Either the costs have to be imposed unilaterally by the exercise of political power or compensation has to be negotiated, assuming sufficient gains from liberalisation have been captured domestically. Studies of interest group battles over the determination of the various aspects of balance of payments policy is certainly a topic in political economy. Another major determinant of macroeconomic policy in recent years is the desire of the state not to make itself vulnerable to international sources of political pressure through loss of control over external balances. This would have meant risking the loss of control over the timing and extent of concessions. Monetary policy, for instance, has been mainly discussed in terms of domestic variables, notably the rate of inflation. But avoidance of adverse developments on the short-term capital account must always have been a major consideration. Here, analysis of domestic interest groups does not help at all; it will take favourable developments on international markets or purposeful risk reduction to permit a more expansionary policy. The second issue involves efficiency gains from improved taxation and expenditure policy. So far, a discussion of the economic role of the state has largely consisted of old-fashioned arguments over size and ownership, which have been driven by (often imaginary) conceptions of political interest. But a determined effort to raise popular living standards will require quite a different approach. Its principal component will be a restructuring of government expenditure, particularly that relating to social services, urban infrastructure and rural development in order to create new opportunities for formerly discriminated against or excluded groups. As Professor McGrath has observed, there are more gains to be had from restructuring the expenditure side of government economic activity than from changes on the revenue side. There are both normative and positive approaches to this question. The positive approach would observe that the restructuring of state expenditure is already under way and would seek to relate it to two developments, significant from the point of view of public choice theory: first, the lowering of the income of the median voter associated with the introduction of the tricameral parliament and secondly, the rise in power of the extraparliamentary movement. The latter has led to a growing expectation of its political incorporation via the universal franchise leading to an anticipatory set of adjustments. A normative approach could be based on an investigation of what is required to minimise an appropriate measure of poverty. At the political level, an advance in the positive account of what our political system is becoming is most urgently needed. Accounts of competing normative positions and the similarities and differences between them abound. So do narrative accounts of particular political episodes. But a deeper analysis of fundamental concepts power in its various aspects, the nature and dynamics of transition, the incentives facing various actors and their strategic choices, the real scope and prospects for legality and, above all, whether steering capacities are being lost or gained by the political system virtually all remain to be carried out in a convincing fashion. On the quality of the terms on which the new public order is created will depend the efficacy with which the private sector can function and evolve. For this reason and because it requires rather more than animal spirits, it is the quality of what goes on in the public sector that is the test of the degree of civilisation achieved in any society. History may be servitude, history may be freedom. Liberalism is nothing if not the defence of freedom. The South African liberal tradition has two components, borne by two rather different social groups. Business liberalism presents a robust, generally optimistic face (though subject to a degree of affective disorder during the recessionary phases of the business cycle); all things considered, it has done quite well during the past decade, playing a considerable role in the dismantling of coercive political structures. But business liberalism represents only a part essentially the material progress part of a rich tradition. It has been left to an always fragile and now almost extinct missionary and philanthropic liberal tradition to try and interpret its cultural aspects. The clearest defences of this part of the liberal tradition in South Africa have been the most poignant contrasts of visions of freedom with the imposition of new forms of servitude a missionary bishop denouncing colonialism in its most brutal, shortsighted form, a professor of philosophy foreseeing with harsh clarity the consequences of the political rise of Afrikaner nationalism. Against the intolerant, coercive forces in our midst, liberalism would do well to take its stand on the two central concepts of Immanuel Kants moral philosophy: individual autonomy and universalisation. Unshackling individual fates from state-imposed racial identities is a great step forward to the achievement of individual autonomy. But the liberal programme will not be realised if social structure continues to dominate individual capacities in determining what people may become. The creation of an open political system and attending to poverty are both central. There are many who claim that the denial of the former is an essential requirement for achieving the latter. Neither international experience nor a close reading of our domestic circumstances support such a view. Universality equality of respect is always and everywhere a greater problem, since, unlike autonomy, it is not an interest but an acknowledgement of the interests of others. Great cultural heterogeneity makes it even harder to achieve; in South Africa, moreover, the destructive logic of ethnic conflict (which militates against the habit of counting each person as one) has not yet come to an end. There are many fields of action, many forms of life; the prospects for liberalism now depend on people coming to see attachment to their own fields of action in a broad enough perspective not only to tolerate others, but to enjoy them.